How Were African American Soldiers Treated When They Returned to Sc After the War?
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- Jonathan D. Sutherland. African Americans at War. An Encyclopedia. 2 volumes. Santa Barbara: California: ABC-CLIO, 2004. FHL 973 M26sj volume 2
- James M. Guthrie. Camp Fires of the Afro-American; or, The Colored Man as a Patriot.Philadelphia: Afro-American Pub Co., 1899 reprint New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970. Digital Book
- William C. Nell, Services of colored Americans in the wars of 1776 and 1812.Boston, Massachusetts, 1851
Revolutionary War (1775-1783) [edit | edit source]
African American Crispus Attucks was the first martyr in the Patriot cause at the Boston Massacre (1770) leading up the the American Revolution.
In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters; another all-black unit came from Haiti with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought as Revolutionaries.
- 1776 United States, Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, 1776 at FindMyPast - index ($)
- 1783 United States, Inspection Roll Of Negroes, 1783 at FindMyPast - index & images ($)
Boston Massacre - March 5, 1770 [edit | edit source]
- Cripus Attucks
Peter Salem and Salem Poor are the most noted of the American Patriots during this era.
- Patriots of Color. Free database at Archives.com. Includes details about thousands of black Americans in the Revolutionary War.[1]
Additional Sources
- Debra L. Newman, comp. List of Black Servicemen Compiled from the War Department Collection of Revolutionary Records. Special List No. 36. WAshington: National Archives and Records Service. General Services Administration, 1974. Digital Book
- Robert Ewell Greene. Black Courage, 1775-1783:documentation of black participation in the American Revolution. Washington,D.C.: National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, 1984. FHL 973 M2gb
- Mrs. Frank Ross Stewart. Black Soldiers of the American Revolutionary War. Centre, Alabama: Stewart University Press, 1978. FHL 973 M254s
- William Cooper Nell. The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution. New York,New York: Arno Press, 1968. FHL 973 F2amL
- Sidney Kaplan and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The Black Presence in the era of the American Revolution. Amhert, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts, Press, 1908. FHL 973 H2kap
- Debra Newman Ham. Guide to Records about Black Participants in the American Revolution from the War Department Collection of Revolutionary War Records at the National Archives. Journal of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society. 22, No.1 (2003):12-26. FHL 973D25j
- The University of Sydney/Cassandra Pybus, Kit Candlin and Robin Petterd, Black Loyalists. Information about African Americans who joined the British during the Revolutionary War.
- Canada Digital Collections, Black Loyalists: Our History, Our People. Project describing the lives of African Americans who joined the British during the Revolutionary War and fled to Nova Scotia.
National Archives
- Inspection Roll of Negroes No. 1 Miscellaneous Papers of the Continental Congress. RG 360
- Inspection Roll of Negroes No. 2 Miscellaneous Papers of the Continental Congress. RG 360
War of 1812 (1812-1815) [edit | edit source]
History of Service [edit | edit source]
- Fighting for Freedom: African Americans and the War of 1812 - National Park Service, several articles
- Away to Freedom : African American soldiers and the War of 1812 by Omar Shareef Price
- The Black Phalanx; a History of the Negro Soldiers of the United States in the Wars of 1775-1812, 1861-'65 by Joseph T. Wilson, 1897.
- Jack Darrell Crowder. African Americans and American Indians in the Revolutionary War. Jefferson, North Carolina : McFarland & Company Inc., Publishers, ©2019 FHL 973 M2cro
Army [edit | edit source]
African Americans served in the Regular Army during the War of 1812, primarily in the 26th Infantry. In NARA's Appendix III a "B" follows the names of those whose physical description indicates black or mulatto skin color. People whose skin was described as "dark" were probably "dark" Caucasians, not African Americans. The "blacks" and "mulattos" noted while records were being arranged are:[2]
- 4th Infantry = Richard Boyington.
- 14th Infantry = George B. Graves.
- 26th Infantry = Hosea/Hossea Conner, John Cooper, Joseph Freeman, Charles Mathias, Samuel Morris, John Peters, and William Smith.
Other African Americans may be in these or other records of the Regular Army or in the records of state militias.
- Eric E. Johnson. Black Regulars in the War of 1812. Berwyn Heights, Maryland: Heritage Books, 2015. FHL 973 M2jee
[edit | edit source]
- Black Sailors During the War of 1812 by Lauren McCormack, 2005
National Archives Catalog - Domestic Claims Commission RG 76
- Definitive List of Slaves and Property, ca. 1827-ca. 1827. NAID 1174162 Names of 3,608 slaves
- Slave Lists, 7.10.1827 - 8.31.1838. NAID 1174163
Mexican War (1846-1848) [edit | edit source]
Civil War (1861-1865) [edit | edit source]
- United States Colored Troops in the Civil War - records and information
Sgt. Major Christian Fleetwood, United States Colored Troops (USCT), Medal of Honor recipient, U.S. Civil War.
The history of African Americans in the U.S. Civil War is marked by 180,000 African Americans comprising 163 units served in the Union Army (United States Colored Troops) during the Civil War, and many more African Americans served in the Union Navy. Both free African Americans and runaway slaves joined the fight. Substantially smaller numbers of blacks are recorded to have served on the Confederate side including two units formed in Richmond, Virginia in 1865, however records are scarce and an exact number is not known.
On July 17, 1862, Congress passed two acts allowing the enlistment of African Americans, but official enrollment occurred only after the September 1862 issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. However, state and local militia units had already begun enlisting blacks, including the Black Brigade of Cincinnati, raised in September to help provide manpower to thwart a feared Confederate raid on Cincinnati.
Union Navy
- David L. Valuska. The African American in the Union Navy 1861-1865 New York, New York : Garland Pub. Co., 1993. FHL 973 F2va Includes a roster of sailors.
United States Colored Troops Sources
- United States Colored Troops in the Civil War
- William A. Dobak. Freedom by the Sword: the U.S. Colored Troops, 1862-1867. Washington,D.C.: Center of Military History. United States Army, 2011
- Joseph B. Ross, comp. Tabular Analysis of the Records of the U.S. Colored Troops and Their Predecessor Units in the National Archives of the United States. Special List No. 33. Washington, National Archives and Records Service. General Services Administration, 1973.
- United States, Civil War Service Records of Union Colored Troops, 1863-1865 FamilySearch Historical Records
- U.S., Confederate Army Payrolls for Enslaved Labor, 1840-1883 at Ancestry - index & images ($)
- United States Colored Troops Pension Files from the International African American Museum's Center for Family History
In general, white soldiers and officers believed that black men lacked the ability to fight and fight well. In October 1862, African American soldiers of the 1st Kansas Colored Volunteers silenced their critics by repulsing attacking Confederates at the Battle of Island Mound, Missouri. By August, 1863, 14 Negro Regiments were in the field and ready for service. At the Battle of Port Hudson, Louisiana, May 27, 1863, the African American soldiers bravely advanced over open ground in the face of deadly artillery fire. Although the attack failed, the black soldiers proved their capability to withstand the heat of battle.
On July 17, 1863, at Honey Springs, Indian Territory, now Oklahoma, the 1st Kansas Colored fought with courage again. Union troops under General James G. Blunt ran into a strong Confederate force under General Douglas H. Cooper. After a two-hour bloody engagement, Cooper's soldiers retreated. The 1st Kansas, which had held the center of the Union line, advanced to within fifty paces of the Confederate line and exchanged fire for some twenty minutes until the Confederates broke and ran. General Blunt wrote after the battle, "I never saw such fighting as was done by the Negro regiment....The question that negroes will fight is settled; besides they make better solders in every respect than any troops I have ever had under my command."
The most widely known battle fought by African Americans was the assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina, by the 54th Massachusetts Infantry on July 18, 1863. The 54th volunteered to lead the assault on the strongly-fortified Confederate positions. The soldiers of the 54th scaled the fort's parapet, and were only driven back after brutal hand-to-hand combat. Despite the defeat, the unit was hailed for its valor which spurred further African-American recruitment, giving the Union a numerical military advantage from a population the Confederacy did not dare exploit in that fashion until the closing days of the war.
Although black soldiers proved themselves as reputable soldiers, discrimination in pay and other areas remained widespread. According to the Militia Act of 1862, soldiers of African descent were to receive $10.00 a month, plus a clothing allowance of $3.50. Many regiments struggled for equal pay, some refusing any money until June 15, 1864, when Congress granted equal pay for all black soldiers.
African American soldiers participated in every major campaign of 1864–65 except Sherman's Atlanta Campaign in Georgia. The year 1864 was especially eventful for African American troops. On April 12, 1864, at Battle of Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest led his 2,500 men against the Union-held fortification, occupied by 292 black and 285 white soldiers. After driving in the Union pickets and giving the garrison an opportunity to surrender, Forrest's men swarmed into the fort with little difficulty and drove the Federals down the river's bluff into a deadly crossfire. Casualties were high and only sixty-two of the U.S. Colored Troops survived the fight. Many accused the Confederates of perpetrating a massacre of black troops, and the controversy continues today. The battle cry for the Negro soldier east of the Mississippi River became "Remember Fort Pillow!"
The propaganda which sprang from the allegations of a "massacre" at Fort Pillow was useful in convincing United States Colored Troops to become suicide forces which entered battle shouting "No quarter! No quarter!," never surrendered and who themselves perpetrated murders of surrendered Confederate forces in Florida and at Fort Blakley, Alabama, on April 9, 1865, at which battle they also shot two white Union officers who tried to stop them, killing one.
An 1864 investigation of Fort Pillow engaged in wholesale fabrication of "evidence" and included assertions that Black women and children had been murdered by Forrest's forces when there were no women or children present at Fort Pillow. A later 1871 Congressional investigation conducted during Reconstruction by Radical Republicans concluded that there was no evidence of a "massacre" and stated that there were "isolated incidents along the riverbank" which Forrest stopped immediately upon his arrival.
The barracks Forrest's men were accused of burning were actually burned under orders by a Union officer. Lieutenant Daniel Van Horn, Sixth U.S. Colored Heavy Artillery, whose report is contained in the Federal Official Records, documented that Lieutenant John D. Hill, U.S. Colored Heavy Artillery, set fire to the barracks under orders of the Union commanding officer.
Forrest took 39 United States Colored Troops (USCT) as POWs and sent them up the chain of command. Forrest even transferred the 14 most seriously wounded USCT to the U.S. Steamer Silver Cloud where they could get better care than that which he could provide.
Allegations of a "massacre" continue to be controversial because historians remain either willfully or blissfully unaware of the Federal Official Records and the 1871 Congressional investigation conclusion.
Christian Fleetwood at The Battle of Chaffin's Farm, Virginia became one of the most heroic engagements involving African Americans. On September 29, 1864, the African American division of the Eighteenth Corps, after being pinned down by Confederate artillery fire for about 30 minutes, charged the earthworks and rushed up the slopes of the heights. During the hour-long engagement the division suffered tremendous casualties. Of the twenty-five African Americans who were awarded the Medal of Honor during the Civil War, fourteen received the honor as a result of their actions at Chaffin's Farm.
Soldiers who fought in the Army of the James were eligible for the Butler Medal, commissioned by that army's commander, Benjamin Butler.
In actual numbers, African American soldiers comprised 10 percent of the entire Union Army. Losses among African Americans were high, and from all reported casualties, approximately one-third of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.
Blacks, both slave and free, were also heavily involved in assisting the Union in matters of intelligence, and their contributions were labelled Black Dispatches.
- John David Smith, Black Soldiers in Blue: African American Troops in the Civil War Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). WorldCat entry.
Confederate States Army
Because of the controversial nature of the subject the debate over how many African Americans served in Confederate uniform, and how many of them served willingly and without coercion is contentious. One estimate by Ed Smith of American University suggests that between 60,000 and 93,000 blacks, both slave and free, served in the Confederate military in some capacity; however, the vast majority of these were likely teamsters, cooks, musicians, and hospital attendants.
"Almost fifty years before the (Civil) War, the South was already enlisting and utilizing Black manpower, including Black commissioned officers, for the defense of their respective states. Therefore, the fact that Free and slave Black Southerners served and fought for their states in the Confederacy cannot be considered an unusual instance, rather continuation of an established practice with verifiable historical precedence." - The African-American Soldier: From Crispus Attucks to Colin Powell, by Lt. Col (retired) Michael Lee Lanning, Birch Lane Press (June 1997).
There were many recorded instances of combat service of Black Confederates which can be found in the Federal Official Records, Northern and Southern newspapers and the letters and diaries of soldiers from both sides. In addition there are recorded instances of Black Southerners serving as regularly-enlisted combat soldiers before the Union allowed enlistment of Blacks.
Elgin (Illinois) Daily Courier-News, Monday, April 12, 1948 - "Robert (Uncle Bob) Wilson, Negro veteran of the Confederate army who observed his 112th birthday last January 13, died early yesterday morning in the veterans' hospital at the Elgin State hospital....He enlisted as a private in Company H of the 16th regiment of Virginia Infantry on Oct. 9, 1862 and discharged May 31, 1863."
For most of the war the Confederate Government prohibited the enlistment of African Americans as armed soldiers in the national army, but the states and individual units often varied from or ignored outright such prohibitions since there were actually very few "national army" regiments at any time during the war with most military units still under state command on loan to the Confederate government.
The keywords in discussing "official Confederate policy" regarding Black soldiers are "national army." States still controlled their military policies within the Confederate command structure but, unlike the Union, did not surrender total control of their forces as part of a "national army."
The Confederate Congress authorized salaries for black musicians in 1862, stating "whenever colored persons are employed as musicians in any regiment or company, they shall be entitled to the same pay now allowed by law to musicians regularly enlisted."
Some individual states in the Confederacy permitted free blacks to enlist as soldiers in their state militias continuing a longstanding tradition. The first to do so was Tennessee, which passed a law on June 21, 1861 authorizing the recruitment of state militia units composed of "free persons of color" between the ages of 15 and 50. Louisiana, which had a sizable free black population, followed suit and assembled the all-black 1st Louisiana Native Guard. This regiment was later forced to disband in February, 1862 when the state legislature passed a law in January, 1862, that reorganized the militia by conscripting "all the free white males capable of bearing arms… irrespective of nationality".
Captured Union African-American soldiers, however, were not treated with equality by Confederate troops as white troops. It is a popularly held folk legend unsupported by documentation that those who were captured were summarily put to death along with any white Union officers who were captured having led them into battle - this was a policy stated, but not put into practice, by the Confederacy. In reality, Black Union soldiers who were captured were treated as runaway slaves and, if their owners could be located, returned to them. If the owners could not be located they were put to work to support the Confederate war effort.
Alabama authorized the enlistment of "mixed blood" creoles in 1862 for a state militia unit in Mobile.
Black Southerners served as combat soldiers often with some of the most celebrated and feared Confederate commands and commanders:
Federal Official Records, Series I, Vol XVI Part I, pg. 805, Lt. Col. Parkhurst's Report (Ninth Michigan Infantry) on General Forrest's attack at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, July 13, 1862: "The forces attacking my camp were the First Regiment Texas Rangers [8th Texas Cavalry, Terry's Texas Rangers, ed.], Colonel Wharton, and a battalion of the First Georgia Rangers, Colonel Morrison, and a large number of citizens of Rutherford County, many of whom had recently taken the oath of allegiance to the United States Government. There were also many Negroes attached to the Texas and Georgia troops, who were armed and equipped, and took part in the several engagements with my forces during the day."
In January 1864, General Patrick Cleburne and several other Confederate officers in the Army of the Tennessee proposed using slaves as soldiers in the national army since the Union was using black troops. Cleburne recommended offering slaves their freedom if they fought and survived. Confederate President Jefferson Davis refused to consider Cleburne's proposal and forbade further discussion of the idea.
The concept, however, did not die. By the fall of 1864, the South was losing more and more ground, and some believed that only by arming the slaves could defeat be averted. On January 11, 1865 General Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them to arm and enlist black slaves in exchange for their freedom. On March 13, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14, and President Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, 1865, but only a few African American companies were raised. Two companies were armed and drilled in the streets of Richmond, Virginia shortly before the besieged southern capital fell.
Despite popular legend, there is documentary evidence that they did see limited combat service:
Richmond Sentinel, March 21, 1865 - "THE BATTALION from Camps Winder and Jackson, under the command of Dr. Chambliss, including the company of colored troops under Captain Grimes, will parade on the square on Wednesday evening, at 4 o'clock. This is the first company of negro troops raised in Virginia. It was organized about a month since, by Dr. Chambliss, from the employees of the hospitals, and served on the lines during the recent Sheridan raid. "
One of the units accompanied General Lee's retreat toward Appomattox and fought at the battle of Amelia, Virginia two days before Lee's surrender.
- Unites States Army Dept. of the Tennessee, General Superintendent of Freedmen. Report of the General Sperintendent of Freedmen. Memphis, Tennessee: n.p., 1865.Free digital copy.
- Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. Cheerful Yesterdays (New York, Arno Press, 1968), 374 pages. Series: The American Negro; his history and literature. Digital copies atGoogle and Internet Archives. Book at WorldCat.
National Archives
- A&IGO -- Register of Slaves Impressed, 1864-1865. RG 109 War Department Collection of Confederate Records. NAID 7970737
See also: Black Prisoners in Confederate Prisons During the Civil War with Bob J. O'Connor (Blog Talk Radio)
Indian Wars (1780s-1890s) [edit | edit source]
From the 1870s to the early 20th Century, African American units were utilized by the United States Government to combat the Native Americans during the Indian Wars. Perhaps the most noted among this group were the Buffalo Soldiers.
At the end of the U.S. Civil War the army reorganized and authorized the formation of two regiments of black cavalry with the designations 9th and 10th U. S. Cavalry. Two regiments of infantry were formed at the same time. These units were composed of black enlisted men commanded by white officers such as Benjamin Grierson, and, occasionally, an African-American officer such as Henry O. Flipper.
From 1866 to the early-1890s these regiments served at a variety of posts in the southwest United States and Great Plains regions. During this period they participated in most of the military campaigns in these areas and earned a distinguished record. Thirteen enlisted men and six officers from these four regiments earned the Medal of Honor during the Indian Wars. In addition to the military campaigns, the "Buffalo Soldiers" served a variety of roles along the frontier from building roads to escorting the U.S. mail.
Buffalo Soldiers [edit | edit source]
On July 28, 1866, Congress passed and act that authorized the army to raise six regiments of African-American soldiers. These six regiments became known as the Buffalo Soldiers, men who served with distinction on the Western frontier. They were named Buffalo Soldiers by the Indians because their curly hair resembled that of a buffalo.
The six regiments became:
- 9th and 10 Cavalries - United States Army Cavalry10th, Troop H, 1866-1898 (stationed at Fort Davis, Texas) . by Harold R. Sayre FHL book 973 M2sw
- 38th, 39th, 40th and 41st Infantry Regiments
* In 1869 the Infantry Regiments were reorganized:
- 38th and 41st became the 24th Infantry Regiment
- 39th and 40th became the 25th Infantry Regiment
| Pension Records: records authorizing distribution of benefits of service, generally contain personal and genealogical information.
| Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| General Index to Pensions Files, 1861-1934.
| 15 | T 288 | FHL Films: 540757 (first film of 544) | 544 films |
| Organization Index to Pension Files of Veterans Who Served Between 1861-1900.
Both the General and the Organization Index to Pensions should be searched.
| 15 | T289 | FHL Film:1725491 (first film of 765) | 765 films |
| Veteran's Administration Pension Payment Cards, 1907-1933.
| 15 | M850 | FHL Films:1634036 (first film of 2539) | 2539 films |
| The unit returns are monthly reports of the U.S. Army regiments.
| Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Returns from Regular Army Cavalry Regiments, 1833-1916.
| 94 | M744 | FHL Film:1602108 (first film of 117) | 117 films |
| Returns from Regular Army Infantry Regiments, June 1821-December 1916. For years 1866-1869:
* For years 1869-1916:
| 94 | M665 | FHL Film:1579232 (first film of 300) | 300 films |
| Register of Enlistments: these records document a soldier's enlistment | Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Register of Enlistments in the United States Army, 1798-1914.
| 94 | M233 | FHL Film: 350307 (first film of 81) | 81 films |
| Negro in Military Service Another filming: FHL Films:928594-928597 | ---- | M858 | FHL Film:1299300 (first film of 3) | 3 films |
| Officer Commissions | Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Letters Received by the Appointment, Commission and Personal Branch, Adjutant General's Office, 1871-1894. This microfiche collection reproduces select files from the Adjutant General's Appointment, Commision and Personal (ACP)Branch Files | 94 | M1395 | Not at FHL | 1,693 fiche |
| Name and Subject Index to the Letters Received by the Appointment, Commission and Personal Branch of the Adjutant Generals' Office 1871-1894. | 94 | M1125 | FHL Film:1578432 (first film of 4) | 4 films |
| Letters Received by the Commission Branch of the Adjutant Generals' Office, 1863-1870. | 94 | M1064 | FHL Film: 1758472 (first film of 478) | 478 films |
| Military post returns give the units stationed at a particular post, the strength, names and duties of officers and the number of officers and soldiers absent and a record of events | Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Returns From U.S. Military Posts, 1800-1916. | 94 | M617 | FHL Film: 1663081 (first film of 1550) | 1550 films |
| Miliatary Academy | Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Black Nominees for Application to the U.S. Military Academy 1870-1887. | ---- | M1002 | FHL Film:1534346 (first film of 21) | 21 films |
| Medal of Honor | Record Group | NARA | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Documents Relating to the Military and Naval Service of Blacks Awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor from the Civil War to the Spanish American War. | --- | M929 | FHL Film: 1601548 (first film of 4) | 4 films |
| Court Martial Contain information about proceedings or testimony of cases brought before a military court | Record Group | NARA # | FHL 1st film | Number of films |
| Register of the Records of the Proceedings of the U.S. Army General Court-Martial 1809-1890. | 153 | M1105 | FHL Film: 1605405 (first film of 8) | 8 films |
Spanish-American War (1898) [edit | edit source]
Segregated company during the Spanish-American War after the Indian Wars ended in the 1890s, the regiments continued to serve and participated in the Spanish-American War (including the Battle of San Juan Hill), where five more Medals of Honor were earned. They took part in the 1916 Punitive Expedition into Mexico and in the Philippine-American War.
Units
In addition to the African Americans who served in Regular Amy units during the Spanish American War, five African American Volunteer Army units and seven African American National Guard units also served.
Volunteer Army:
- 7th United States Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 8th United States Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 9th United States Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 10th United States Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 11th United States Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
National Guard:
- 3rd Alabama Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 8th Illinois Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- Companies A and B, 1st Indiana Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 23rd Kansas Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 3rd North Carolina Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 9th Ohio Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
- 6th Virginia Volunteer Infantry (Colored Troops)
Of these units, only the 9th U.S., 8th Illinois, and 23rd Kansas served outside the United States during the war. All three units served in Cuba and suffered no losses to combat.
World War I (1917-1918) [edit | edit source]
Officers of the 366th Infantry Regiment returning home from WWI service.The U.S. armed forces remained segregated through World War I. Still, many African Americans eagerly volunteered to join the Allied cause following America's entry into the war. By the time of the armistice with Germany on November 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force in on the Western Front.
Most African American units were largely relegated to support roles and saw little combat. Still, African Americans played a major role in America's war effort. One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters," which was on the front lines for six months, longer then any other African American regiment in the war. One hundred seventy-one members of the 396th were awarded the Legion of Merit.
Corporal Freddie Stowers of the 371st Infantry Regiment was posthumously awarded a Medal of Honor—the only African American to be so honored for actions in World War I. During action in France, Stowers had led an assault on German trenches, continuing to lead and encourage his men even after being twice wounded. Stowers died from his wounds, but his men continued the fight and eventually defeated the German troops. Stowers was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but the nomination was, according to the Army, misplaced.
Many, believing that the recommendation was intentionally ignored due to institutional racism in the Armed Forces. In 1990, under from Congress, the Department of the Army launched an investigation. Based on findings from this investigation, the Army Decorations Board approved the award of the Medal of Honor to Stowers. On April 24, 1991—73 years after he was killed in action—Stowers' two surviving sisters received the Medal of Honor from President George H.W. Bush at the White House. The success of the investigation leading to Stowers' Medal of Honor later sparked a similar review that resulted in seven African Americans being awarded the Medal of Honor for actions in World War II.
Units
Some of the most notable African American units which served in World War I were:
- 92nd Infantry Division
- 366th Infantry Regiment
- 93d Infantry Division
- 369th Infantry Regiment (Harlem Hellfighters)
- 371st Infantry Regiment
- Complete History of the Colored Soldiers in the World War;... New York City: Bennett & Churchill, 1919
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
On October 4, 1935, Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia. African-Americans organized to raise money for medical supplies, and many volunteered to fight for the African kingdom.[1] Within eight months however, it would be overpowered by the advanced weaponry and mustard gas of the Italian forces.
Many years later Haile Selassie I would comment on the efforts: "We can never forget the help Ethiopia received from Negro Americans during the crisis...It moved me to know that Americans of African descent did not abandon their embattled brothers, but stood by us."
Spanish Civil War
African-American activist and World War I veteran Oliver Law, fighting in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War, is believed to have been the first African-American officer to command white American troops.
Related Projects
- George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War. Park University
- Valor Medals Review
Related Sources
- Adam P. Wilson.African American Army Officers of World War I. Jefferson, North Carolina:McFarland and Company, 2015.
- W. Douglas Fisher and Joann H. Buckley. African American Doctors of World War I. Jefferson, North: McFarland and Company, 2016.
World War II (1941-1945) [edit | edit source]
Despite a high enlistment rate in the U.S. Army, African Americans were not treated equally. Racial tensions existed. At parades, church services, in transportation and canteens the races were kept separate.
Many soldiers of color served their country with distinction during World War II. Famous segregated units, such as the Tuskegee Airmen and U.S. 761st Tank Battalion proved their value in combat, leading to desegregation of all U.S. Armed Forces by order of President Harry S. Truman in July of 1948 via Executive Order 9981.
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. served as commander of the famed Tuskegee Airmen during the War. He later went on to become the first African American general in the United States Air Force. His father, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., had been the first African American Brigadier General in the Army (1940).
Doris Miller, a Navy mess attendant, was the first African American recipient of the Navy Cross, awarded for his actions during the attack on Pearl Harbor. Miller had voluntarily manned an anti-aircraft gun and fired at the Japanese aircraft, despite having no prior training in the weapon's use.
In 1944, the Golden Thirteen became the Navy's first African American commissioned officers.
In 1945, Frederick C. Branch became the first African-American United States Marine Corps officer.
Units
Some of the most notable African American Army units which served in World War II were:
- 92nd Infantry Division
- U.S. 366th Infantry Regiment
- 93d Infantry Division
- 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion
- 761st Tank Battalion
- 332d Fighter Group (Tuskegee Airmen)
- 614th Tank Destroyer Battalion
Two segregated units were organized by the United States Marine Corps:
- 51st Defense Battalion. (Composite)
- 52nd Defense Battalion. (Composite)
Medal of Honor recipients
On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton, in a White House ceremony, awarded the nation's highest military honor — the Medal of Honor — to 7 African-American servicemen who had served in World War II.
The only living recipient was:
- First Lieutenant Vernon Baker.
The posthumous recipients were:
- Major Charles L. Thomas
- First Lieutenant John R. Fox
- Staff Sergeant Ruben Rivers
- Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr.
- Private First Class Willy F. James, Jr.
- Private George Watson
Integration of the Armed Forces
In 1948, President Truman signed Executive Order 9981 integrating the military and mandating equality of treatment and opportunity. It also made it illegal, per military law, to make a racist remark. Desegregation of the military was not complete for several years, all-black Army units persisted well into the Korean War.
In 1950, Lieutenant Leon Gilbert of the still-segregated 24th Infantry Regiment was court martialed and sentenced to death for refusing to obey the orders of a white officer while serving in the Korean War. Gilbert maintained that the orders would have meant certain death for himself and the men in his command. The case led to world-wide protests and increased attention to segregation and racism in the U.S. military. Gilbert's sentence was commuted to twenty and later seventeen years of imprisonment; he served five years and was released.
The integration commanded by Truman's 1948 Executive Order extended to schools and neighborhoods as well as military units. Fifteen years after the Executive Order, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara issued Department of Defense Directive 5120.36. "Every military commander," the Directive mandates, "has the responsibility to oppose discriminatory practices affecting his men and their dependents and to foster equal opportunity for them, not only in areas under his immediate control, but also in nearby communities where they may gather in off-duty hours."
Although the directive was issued in 1963, it was not until 1967 that the first non-military establishment was declared off-limits. In 1970 the requirement that commanding officers first obtain permission from the Secretary of Defense was lifted, and areas were allowed to be declared housing areas off limits to military personnel by their commanding officer.
Korean War [edit | edit source]
Jesse L. Brown became the U.S. Navy's first black aviator in October 1948. He was killed when his plane was shot down during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir in North Korea. He was unable to eject from his crippled F4U Corsair and crash-landed successfully. His injuries and damage to his aircraft prevented him from leaving the plane. A white squadron mate crash-landed his F4U Corsair near Brown and attempted to extricate Brown but could not and Brown died of his injuries. The U.S. Navy honored Jesse Brown by naming an escort ship after him — the U.S.S. Jesse L. Brown.
Related Sources
- Records of military agencies relating to African Americans from the post-World War I period to the Korean War Washington, D.C. : National Archives and Records Administration, 2000. Digital
Vietnam War [edit | edit source]
The Vietnam War saw many great accomplishments by many African Americans, including twenty who received the Medal of Honor for their actions.
In 1967, President Lyndon B. Johnson presented the Medal of Honor to U.S. Army Specialist Five Lawrence Joel, for a "very special kind of courage — the unarmed heroism of compassion and service to others." Joel was the first living African American to receive the Medal of Honor since the Mexican–American War. He was a medic who in 1965 saved the lives of U.S. troops under ambush in Vietnam and defied direct orders to stay to the ground, walking through Viet Cong gunfire and tending to the troops despite being shot twice himself. The Lawrence Joel Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Winston-Salem, North Carolina is dedicated to his honor.
On August 21, 1968, with the posthumous award of the Medal of Honor, U.S. Marine James Anderson, Jr. became the first African-American U.S. Marine recipient of the Medal of Honor for his heroic actions and sacrifice of life.
On December 10, 1968, U.S. Army Captain Riley Leroy Pitts became the first African American commissioned officer to be awarded the Medal of Honor. His medal was presented posthumously to his wife, Mrs. Eula Pitts, by President Lyndon B. Johnson.
Post-Vietnam to Present Day [edit | edit source]
In 1989, President George H. W. Bush appointed Army General Colin Powell to the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, making Powell the highest ranking officer in the United States military. Powell was the first, and is so far the only, African American to hold that position. The Chairman serves as the chief military adviser to the President and the Secretary of Defense. During his tenure Powell oversaw the 1989 United States invasion of Panama to oust General Manuel Noriega and the 1990 to 1991 Gulf War against Iraq. General Powell's four-year term as Chairman ended in 1993.
General William E. "Kip" Ward was officially nominated as the first commander of the new United States Africa Command on July 10, 2007. He is currently Deputy Commander, United States European Command and the active military's only black four-star general. According to the Pentagon, Africa Command will help "promote peace and security and respond to crises on the continent." It will also coordinate military support for other diplomatic and development programs.
Related FamilySearch Blog Articles [edit | edit source]
- Remembering the Harlem Hellfighters of World War I
- Remembering World War I
- Discover Your Ancestors in World War I Records
- Accessing US Soldiers' Records for World War I
External Links [edit | edit source]
- Military Resources: Blacks in the Military (National Archives)
- http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/index.html
References [edit | edit source]
- Lisha Penn. Documenting African Americans in the Records of Military Agencies. Prologue 29 (Summer, 1997)
- Mark R. Salser. Black Americans in Defense of their Nation. Portland, Oregon: National Book, 1992. FHL 973 M2smr
- William C. Nell. Services of Colored Americans in the Wars of 1776 and 1812. Philadelphia, PA.: A.M.E. Publishing Co., 1894.
- T.G. Steward. The Colored Regulars in the United States Army. Sketch of the History of the Colored Americans, and an Account of His Services in the Wars of the Country, from the Period of the Revolutionary War to 1899. Philadelphia, A.M. E. Book Concern, 1904.
- ↑ Dick Eastman, "Archives.com to Publish the Patriots of Color Database," Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter, 24 February 2012, http://blog.eogn.com/eastmans_online_genealogy/2012/02/archivescom-to-publish-the-patriots-of-color-database.html.
- ↑ National Archives and Records Administration, War of 1812 Discharge Certificates, (accessed 4 April 2012).
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How Were African American Soldiers Treated When They Returned to Sc After the War?
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